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Editor’s Note: This study relates self-efficacy to retention for online psychology students. The thought crosses this editor’s mind that self-efficacy is significant in completion of any learning task in any discipline, whether learning takes place online or face-to-face.

Self-Efficacy & Motivation Effects on
Online Psychology Student Retention

The Effects of self-efficacy and level of motivation on retention
 for learners in online graduate psychology programs

Robert Irizarry

Abstract

Online classrooms are considered the future wave of education. Increase availability of computer technology and acceptance of adult online professional degrees have fostered this attitude. Online education requires learners to be self-directed, intrinsically motivated, and have practical knowledge of computer technology. Influenced by perception of individual ability, student’s motivation, self-beliefs, and teaching practices can account for the difference among students completing an online degree. Bandura (2001) explains the effects of beliefs as reciprocally influencing the person and the environment in a triadic relationship. Can self-efficacy beliefs and levels of motivation account for online psychology student retention? The author will discuss the implications of social cognitive theory concept of self-efficacy, its relationship to motivation, teaching practices, and online graduate psychology student retention.

Introduction

Distant learning can be described as the educational wave of the future. The acceptance of home school as a valid form of education and the success shown by the distant learner home schooled children have influenced the expansion of mode of education to the university and professional degrees. Increase availability of computer-based technology has opened the way to increased college educational availability to adults who otherwise would have not been able to attain a college degree. Exposure to technology also made possible the use of computers to aid classroom instruction. Technological advances have facilitated the development of faster Internet communication, lower technology costs, and more user-friendly computer software. These advances have enabled the tracking and storage of information needed in an on-line instructional web based education. Online education has opened a new world of collaboration and increased availability of information and educational opportunities (Wang & Newlin, 2000). Psychologists are no exception to the influx of Internet driven education in their attainment of advance professional degrees.

Employment and licensure opportunities that require advanced graduate degrees motivated psychologists to continue their education until reaching a professional degree. Even though online graduate education attracts many psychology students, few research studies have dealt with the question that can theoretically explain specific learner’s characteristics that aid the success and completion of an online professional psychology degree (Wang & Newlin, 2000). Empirical investigation results could define and become the base line for strategies that increase the retention of online graduate psychology students.

Sherry (1996) presents distant learners’ student characteristics and learning styles as well as teaching techniques that aid this type educational experience. Sherry establishes that self-directed behavior and an internal locus of control are important ingredients for distant students. Online learners’ characteristics can present useful information that could bring light to practices that will increase the likelihood of degree completion. The use of a theoretical foundation as the basis for empirical data gathering is an important step to determine and narrow down characteristics that can contribute to online student retention. The determination of a theoretical construct that can account for student retention therefore has to be directly related to academic achievement and resiliency among online graduate psychology students.

Psychologists and psychology students can receive a professional degree from a web-based institution, which results in a costly well-rounded educational experience enhancing the professional’s own experience learning with others in the field. The characteristics of these cyber-students is often cited as self-motivated, self-starter, critical thinker, degree of family support, class content and personal/career interest, amount and type of feedback with instructors and other students, accepts responsibility for own learning, organized, and practical knowledge in the use of computers, (Murphy, 1998). These experiences have created momentum and positive perception in the attainment of a well-rounded educational experience. Self-perceptions and confidence in the attainment of one’s goal also affect the outcome of such an endeavor.

Campbell (1999) describes adult distant learner characteristics based on the andragogy model. The andragogy model states that adults have come to the psychological stage of life where they are responsible for their well being and can execute self-directed activities (p. 1). This coincides with Thompson (1998) findings witch states that adult distant learners are older, more mature, married, employed, and female (p.2). Research attempts to establish a relationship between online graduate student retention and demographical characteristics has been inconclusive and contradictory (Thompson, 1998). Assuming that distant learner’s characteristics are applicable to online learners, Thompson and Campbell’s lack of specificity only accounted for overall characteristics. Specificity and determination of a valid theoretical foundation constitute a deficiency in the empirical data of online graduate psychology student characteristics. Wang & Newlin (2000) established that current research determining online student characteristics relies on anecdotal evidence (p. 137).

The individual characteristics of each participant are important factors in the completion of educational goals. These educational goals have to match the individuals’ preparedness and willingness to engage in such a program. Web-based distant learning provides learners with the opportunity to maintain their life-style, interact with other students from remote places, the ability to plan a study schedule around other activities, cut down in travel to have more time to search for resources, benefit from an array of resources and from diverse faculty interest. The combination of experiences and the facilitation of an experienced professor provide the ideal learning experience for an array of students seeking a professional degree in psychology. Each individual’s characteristics, motivations, and experiences are accounted for during the course of learning. Different from traditional education, each individual is solely responsible for his or her own learning.

Faculty also presents an important piece of the paradigm of individual student learning by becoming the resource in which the learning takes place. An online distant learning professor’s creativity and level of planning influence the specific interactive nature of this type of instruction. McKeachie (2002) explains the difference in the process of teaching a distant course as, “Distant teaching is an extended act of imagination.” (p. 258). Professors have to process the course sequence, guide instructional activities, looking ahead to the need of the students. Encouraging, motivating, guiding, are descriptors of the online web-base instructional experience.

For students to be successful, an array of conditions are found to contribute to the retention of graduate psychology students using the web-based education to fulfill their academic goals. Motivational factors contribute to the retention of students. Bandura’s social cognitive theory provides a framework that can account for differences in the retention of students. In addition, motivational factors, internal and external influences captivate the individual’s ability to complete an online graduate psychology degree using a distant learning program. Bandura’s social cognitive theory presents the reciprocal influences of three areas of learning. Behavior, personal (cognitive, affective, biological) events, environmental and behavioral conditions affect student motivation (Schunk & Pajares, 2001). The concept of self-efficacy can account for the differences between graduate psychology students completing their degree or withdrawing from such a program. In addition, self-efficacy provides the root of the motivational process that affects the individual attainment of educational goals.

The formulation of concepts regarding the characteristics of web-based distant learning psychology programs and degree completion will be addressed by taking in consideration the following questions: Is the completion rate directly related to the level of motivation and self-efficacy of those seeking to complete a distant learning program? What differences are there among those students that complete a distant learning web-based psychology program?

The search for such information will determine the possible need to stimulate research in this area. Caution should be given when attempting to encapsulate individual characteristics with degree completion. Many other variables can account and influence such a result. This essay will attempt to explain retention of distant on-line graduate psychology program students using Bandura’s social cognitive theory self-efficacy and level of motivation.

 

Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory establishes that human behavior is influenced and affected by the individual, behavior, and environment. Each person affects as well as it is affected by this triadic relationship. The theory establishes that each individual possesses the capacity to symbolize, develop self-directed forethought, and learn from his or her and others individual experiences (Schunk & Pajares, 2001). According to social-cognitive theory, each individual possesses a self-regulating system that affects motivation and learner differentiation. This self-regulating system represents a process that is affected by a bi-directional and interdependent relationship between behavior, personal experiences, and environment (Bandura, 2001). This relationship becomes a triadic interrelation that influences motivation and self-beliefs. The self-system is a part self-regulatory system that each individual possess. The self-regulatory system aids in the development of beliefs and behavior that will enable or discount actions. Research has shown that self-regulatory behavior can account for academic achievement (Pajares 1996; 2001a; 2001b; 2002; Pajares & Schunk, 2001). As part of this self-regulatory system, Bandura introduced the concept of self-efficacy. He defines self-efficacy as an essential part of the human functioning reciprocally motivating and perpetuating the individual’s behavior (Bandura, 2001). The concept of self-efficacy can be considered as the theoretical foundation to determine the individual differences that account for the retention of online psychology graduate students.

Bandura (2001) explains the process of thought and action as regulated by a self-system that enables individuals to exercise control of their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Pajares (1996) describes the self-system as one that “houses one’s cognitive and affective structures and includes the ability to symbolize, learn from others, plan alternative strategies, regulate one’s own behavior, and engage in self-reflection” (p. 1). The self-system is a self-regulatory subsystem that mediates the influences of each of the triadic parts of individual’s behavior, thoughts, feelings, and motivation. Based on the results of the interactions between environment, personal characteristic, and beliefs, the individual’s likelihood of similar actions to occur is increased. Each person affects his or her environment and is influenced by his or her actions. The thoughts resulting from this interrelationship becomes a mediator between knowledge and behavior (p. 3).

Each person’s experience forms an important part in the development of self-regulation (Bandura, 2001; Pajares, 1996). The individual is therefore accumulating perception about his or her performances that influence his or her self-belief. Through this bi-directional reciprocal process, the individual is in control of his thoughts, environment, and behavior. The self-system is composed of experiences and beliefs that each person forms of his or her abilities. According to Bandura (2001), self-efficacy is the concept by which each person’s experiences, abilities, and thoughts merges into one road. This concept could account for the online learner level of motivation, affecting the retention of online psychology graduate student retention.

 

Self-Efficacy and Motivation

Bandura defines self-efficacy as “people’s judgment of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” (p. 2). Self-efficacy regulates the way in which an individual perceives his or her competency. This perception influences an individual’s ability to complete a task and a set, attainable goal (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). This perception also affects the level of motivation and resilience the individual develops. Each individual develops a visualization of self, creating what Bandura calls a self-system. This self-system provides cognitive and affective information basic to the control of thoughts, feelings, and actions. An individual perception activates the self-system providing information regarding past experiences, accomplishments, and failures. These experiences are processed, stored, and used by the self-efficacy beliefs system, which in turn affects experiences, thoughts, behavior, and environment. The self-system then forms conceptualizations of the individual’s abilities. These perceptions become the motivational drive that accompanies action.

Self-efficacy directly affects the levels of motivation and actions individuals engage. By determining what activities they are more likely to accomplish, the adult learner engages in actions they are more likely to succeed. According to Pajares (2001a), Pajares (2001b), and Schunk & Pajares (2001), research studies have demonstrated that self-efficacy affects the level of motivation, learning, and achievement. Social cognitive theory proposes a bi-directional interrelation between each part of the individual’s experience, as well as the cognitive summary of the experiences each individual accumulates through the years. Each individual forms a set of self-efficacy beliefs that account for his or her motivation and resilience in completing an activity. Students’ perceptions are based on information obtained from “actual performances, their vicarious experiences, and the persuasions they receive from others and their physiological reactions” (p. 2). High self-efficacy contributes to beliefs in the individual’s capacity to learn, motivating experiences and the efforts placed on learning.

Self-efficacy is not only a judgment of an individual’s ability, but also the beliefs that an individual develops regarding his or her ability to successfully complete a task. The development of self-efficacy is the result of the triadic interrelationship between environment, personal characteristics, and behavior. Self-efficacy influences the will to complete a task, perform an action, or engage in an activity. This perception of self-efficacy interrelates with the individual’s ability to complete a task. According to social cognitive theory, each individual’s motivation is driven by self-efficacy beliefs as well as other self-regulatory characteristics (e.g. self-esteem). Self-efficacy influences motivation by the individual’s perception of their ability. An individual can have a high level of motivation and self-efficacy on a learning task, but his or her actual experience may affect the individual’s belief of his or her ability to complete such a task. The learning process is then mediated by self-efficacy, which motivates and affects the effectiveness of self-directed behavior (Pajares, 1996, p. 7).

Self-efficacy is an essential part of learning that affects the individual’s belief that it is possible to engage and complete a task. If self-efficacy can account as a characteristic that affects the retention of online graduate psychology student, the inclusion of this concept in the teaching practices of online classroom can enhance and prevent students withdrawing from their psychology graduate programs.

 

Self-Efficacy and Teaching Practices

The particularities of online learning do not include motivational factors based on modeling and or perceptual similarities. The learning process occurs using the written language found in online discussions and task completion. Each individual experience constitutes the foundation in which interactions include new found knowledge. During the online learning process, each individual is responsible for task completion. The compilation of knowledge presented in the course, as well as assigned projects during the length of the class, aid in the process of learning. The organization of online courses is an important part in the enhancement of the learning process. The teacher should consider the characteristics of their students in the process of course design (McKeachie, 2002).

Sherry (1996) describes distant learning as learning that should be directed toward the needs of the students and not on inclusion of technology within the learning process. If this is taken into consideration, the development of teaching strategies should focus on student characteristics. Self-efficacy can be considered an important motivational part of student characteristics. Therefore, if self-efficacy can be increased by teacher-student interactions, then teaching practices could enhance each student’s belief system, increasing the probability for online graduate degree completion.

Bandura (2001) explains that human behavior is an ever-changing process. Interactions and modes of learning are bi-directional influenced by the self-regulatory system. Lacking the face-to-face interaction, online graduate learners are more vulnerable to the self-regulatory system. Drawing from their self-beliefs and self-efficacy system, the online students depend on validation from the interaction with their professors. If this influence is considered valid, then teaching techniques used can enhance the self-efficacy system of an adult student receiving online graduate education (Debowski, Wood, & Bandura, 2001). Self-efficacy can account for the heightened retention of students otherwise leaving this non-traditional form of education.

Considering that self-efficacy influences the choices people make, the actions they take, the amount of effort placed on an activity, how quickly the individual recovers from a set back, the belief that things are tougher that they really are, and many other factors enhancing motivation; then self-efficacy becomes an important source of motivation for the online graduate learner. Wang & Newlin (2000) reported that online web-based education psychology students, when compared with traditional education students, have a high need for cognition and an internal locus of control. The investigators studied the cognitive-motivational and demographic characteristics of psychology students enrolled in an online graduate web-based psychological statistics course and compared them with students taking a face-to-face, more traditional course to determine success. The implication of Wang & Newlin study opens a categorical question regarding empirical information available to predict the success of students. Self-efficacy may account for the base line and theoretical construct to investigate the differentiation among online psychology students seeking a professional degree.

Online education requires the development of skills necessary to meet course requirements. One important skill is the ability to utilize the online resources available to the student. Debowski, Wood, & Bandura (2001) studied the self-regulatory process on the mechanics and acquisition of information through electronic search. They found that university students enrolled in an accounting course that were guided through the exploration of the internet “produced higher levels of perceived self-efficacy, satisfaction, strategy quality, and performance and lower levels of wasted effort on electronic search tasks than self-guided, enactive exploration” (p. 13).

Schunk & Pajares (2001) present some useful information regarding the development of self-efficacy and possible instructional strategies. They report that clear goals and expectations enhance the learning process and contribute to individual self-efficacy beliefs. Pajares (2002) presents the importance of the self-system, specifically self-efficacy, as follows: “Unless people believe that their actions will have the desired consequences, they have little incentive to engage in those actions” (p. 6).

Professors engaged in distant education know the importance of identifying their audience and visualizing students’ needs while planning an online course. Distant educators are also aware of the importance of sequence in the process of course delivery. Research has found that online education psychology students have a need for guidance in the process of learning Debowski, Wood, & Bandura, 2001). Wang & Newlin (2000) found that professors should closely monitor the online interactions of their students, determining progress and providing feedback.

Self-efficacy proponents recommend that teachers pay attention to the manner in which students perceive their skills and confidence in completing a task. Online educators can enhance their students’ learning experience and motivation by providing feedback that enhances each student’s perception of competence, without compromising honesty. The student’s perception of competence can enhance or diminish his or her level of motivation.

The applicability of self-efficacy to teaching practices has to meet the specificity recommended and implied by Bandura’s theory (Pajares, 1996). Interactions between the online learner and the instructor will require specificity in the practices that will enable the investigation of the effects of teaching techniques to specific self-efficacy beliefs. Determining these conceptual practices will allow the modification and improvement in the communication and the enhancement of the online learning experience. The unavailability of empirical information regarding online teaching practices will invite the use of specificity in theoretical construct as well as well defined learning relationships among the variables studied.

 

Discussion

Rapid growth and availability have left distant education without sufficient empirical validation that can account for the retention of students of online graduate psychology programs. Certain online student characteristics are more conducive to resiliency and higher levels of motivation. Self-efficacy was found to explain the differences in students’ academic achievements. The specificity of these student characteristics can provide the basis for empirical formulations. Bandura (2001) and Pajares (1996) caution measurements of global self-efficacy and the failure in the predictive ability of the concept of self-efficacy. Since self-efficacy is a part of a self-regulatory system, the individuality of such characteristics can only be measured in specific academic domains. Recommendations are made for specificity in the constructs of empirical formulations to measure the predictive ability of the concept of self-efficacy. There has been limited empirical investigations regarding the applicability of the concept of self-efficacy to online graduate psychology retention. Nevertheless, the applicability of the concept to aid in the understanding of online learner characteristics cannot be discounted.

Teaching strategies that will enhance and predict online student retention are far from a conceptual framework. The literature demonstrates that certain processes aid in the online learning process, but lack the specific techniques that will enhance and promote retention of online graduate psychology student. Even though self-efficacy cannot directly account for specific teaching strategies, the importance of self-efficacy as a conceptual theorem can validate the need for further empirical investigation. Individual differences can account for levels of retention in online graduate psychology education. Student characteristics provide a basis for investigation and the belief that a student can accomplish a task could determine the difference between retention and not completing an online psychology graduate degree.

According to the information presented, self-efficacy affects the beliefs and motivation level of the individual. If a person believes that he or she can complete a task, the probability that he or she will engage and become resilience to any obstacles increases. Of course the belief is accompanied by many components that have been bi-directionally affected by personal experiences, environment, and actions. Individuals that have experienced academic success may be more prone to engage in similar experiences. Their success in completing an online psychology degree includes variables other than self-efficacy. However, the concept of self-efficacy can partially account for the resiliency of those that complete online graduate degrees.

At this time, literature cannot account for differences in individual characteristics that aid the retention of online students. Information and empirical evidence has brought light to the characteristics of online students, with a lack of specificity concerning student retention.

This presentation is by no means has covered all possible information in the subject of online psychology student retention. Many other possible theoretical constructs that could account for explanation of learner characteristic are not considered. The author acknowledges the fact that many other theoretical constructs can be considered in the conceptualization and explanation of individual differences, which can account for online psychology student retention. Social cognitive theory present a more empirically sound concept that can account for student achievement and online psychology student retention. Undoubtedly the need for research specifying the difference between online psychology student’s characteristics and retention remains.

 

References

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About the Author

Robert Irizarry is currently attending Walden University (Minneapolis, MN), Counseling Psychology Ph.D. program. He holds a B.A. in Psychology, and M.A. in Counseling and Guidance from the InterAmerican University of Puerto Rico.

The author is interested in the development of empirical information that will increase the knowledge and effectiveness of retention effort of students registered in online psychology educational programs. His telephone number is (832)-865-6997 and email address is ririzarr@waldenu.edu.